Water Quality Management

+ Overview of Policies & Efforts
+ Comprehensive Water Improvement Measures for the Major Rivers
+ Livestock Wastewater Management
+ Comprehensive Measures for Non-Point Source Pollution Management

1) Overview of Policies & Efforts

The demand for clear and clean water is ever-growing as the living standards and environmental consciousness of Koreans rise. Since the 1960s, the need to address the deterioration of water resources due to the industrialization, urbanization, and population growth has been increasingly recognized by the government and the public, especially after the major pollution accident involving phenol on the Nakdong River in 1991. Accordingly, the Ministry of Environment (MOE) established the Comprehensive Measures on the Provision of Clean Water in 1993 for the protection of public health and the creation of pleasant water environments.

More recently, MOE established the Comprehensive Water Quality Management Measures for the Four Major Rivers between 1998 and 2000. The four major rivers are the Han-gang, Nakdong-gang, Geum-gang, and Yongsan/Sumjin-gang, which meet the water needs of more than 40 million Korean people. Major policies include the total water pollution load management system, riparian buffer zones, land purchasing, a water use charge and resident support measures.

To ensure the smooth implementation of these measures through legal backing, the Act on Watershed Management and Community Support was enacted for each of the rivers between 1999 and 2002. These measures and acts were developed through more than 420 discussions and public hearings with stakeholders including residents, local governments, and experts over a period of five years from 1998 to 2005. With 11.1 trillion Won (9.65 billion USD) in total investments, the overarching goals are to raise the quality of water resources to Grade 1 or 2 according to the Korean index and to raise the proportion of the population connected to sewerage facilities to 85.5% by 2006.

The Total Water Pollution Load (TPWL) management system contributes to the sustainable management of water resources by setting a target water quality, which has been differentially set based on the results of an environmental survey conducted in each river basin and in consideration of the specific water use. This is in direct improvement to the previous regulations based on pollution concentration. For the Han river basin, using the TPWL management system is optional, and Kwangju City is the first to voluntarily establish a TPWL management plan, to be implemented between July 2004 and the end of 2007. In other river basins, water quality goals have been established in 18 locations of the Nakdong river basin, 3 locations in the Geum river basin, and 7 locations in the Yongsan/Sumjin river basin. For achieving these targets, five cities and provinces in the Nakdong river basin have already established TPWL management plans in early 2004 and other local governments in the Geum and Yongsan/Sumjin rivers are following suit.

As a precautionary measure, riparian buffer zones are being established for up to 300m~1km from the water edge along the upstream banks of the four major rivers where the development of new restaurant, lodging, livestock faming, and industrial facilities are restricted. Currently 1,130 km² have been designated as riparian buffer zones. Moreover, the government is involved in land purchasing, currently around 3,300 km², to prevent water pollution from non-point sources, among others.

In accordance with the user-pays-principle and for equitable cost sharing strategies, the MOE has levied a water use charge on downstream residents since 1999 in proportion to the amount of water usage. The collected revenue supplies the Watershed Management Fund, which supports upstream residents and local governments under land use regulations set forth to protect water resources. The Fund supports community projects and provides funding for the construction and operation of basic environmental services, as well as land purchasing. The estimated budget for 2007 is around 663.1 billion Won (928 million USD) for all four river basins.

Short-term plans include amending the Special Act on the Han River to shift the TWPL management system from optional to mandatory. Also, the TWPL system will be gradually applied on a wider scale per region and watershed, and the local support activities of the Watershed Management Fund will be expanded to incite voluntary cooperation from residents and local governments for protecting water resources.

In the field of industrial waste, the Sector Based Environmental Action Plan (SBEP) was established in January 2004. Its contents include 1) allowable emissions standards differentiated according to differences in treatment levels and costs between industries and watersheds, 2) an increase of items listed as specific water pollutants, 3) the introduction of testing and management of bio-toxins, 4) upgrading the permits system to take into consideration industry and watershed characteristics, and 5) improvements for more efficient monitoring. Furthermore, a Council for the Industrial Waste Management System Improvement Plan (24 members) has been created to facilitate the participation of stakeholders such as business, environmental technology professionals, environmental organizations, and local governments.

For advanced industrial waste management, short-term plans include pilot projects for improving monitoring and making necessary amendments to related legislations. Mid- to long-term plans include developing concrete measures for differentiated allowable emissions standards by 2008, providing an industrial waste management policy to control bio-toxins by 2007, and increasing the number of special water pollutants from 17 to 27 items by 2008.

Lastly, the management of non-point source pollution, including livestock waste, is being actively improved through the new Comprehensive Non-point Source Pollution Management Measures for the Four Major Rivers, settled in March 2004. This set of measures represents the growing focus of MOE water policies on non-point source pollution in light of the fact that point-source pollution is being largely prevented through the widespread increase in sewage systems and treatment facilities. Also, a Task Force Team on Livestock Waste Management and Use was created in April 2004 with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

2) Comprehensive Water Improvement Measures for the Major Rivers

MOE completed the landmark project of establishing water management measures for four major rivers in the country, after holding 420 discussions with affected residents, local governments, and relevant experts during five years from 1998 to 2002. Enacted and enforced were special laws pertaining to the Han River water-shed in August 1999, and the other three river watersheds in July 2002. Through special measures and laws for the four rivers, MOE introduced strong precautionary policies focusing on total pollution load management system, designation of riparian buffer zones and land purchase of water source areas. Also, in order to ensure coexistence and prosperity for both upstream and downstream areas, we applied user-pays principle, and imposed water use charges to raise funds for water-shed management, thereby sup-porting residents who are restricted in exercising their rights to use land and properties at water sources areas. This was called the Watershed Management System.

① Reshaping of Watershed Management Organization
② Total Pollution Load Management System
③ Water Use Charges & Watershed Management Funds
④ Designation of Riparian Buffer Zones
⑤ Purchase of Land

① Reshaping of Watershed Management Organization
Local administrations governing upstream and downstream areas in the four river watersheds and major water sources established the Watershed Management Committees, a representative decision-making body aimed at efficiently managing each water-shed. The Watershed Management Committees are established as public corporations at each watershed, and are chaired by the Minister of Environment and consist of relevant mayors, provincial governors, the president of Korea Water Resources Corporation, and heads of other water-related institutes.
Water Management Commit-tees establish comprehensive plans for reducing pollutants and improving water quality. They also deal with matters related to imposing and collecting water use charges as well as operation and management of funds. They also handle the purchase of land, establish plans for resident support projects and support NGOs' monitoring of water quality. Also, the committees allow local residents and NGOs to participate in deter-mining major policies on water-shed management for optimal reflection of their opinions.
In addition, aimed at overseeing the task of managing watersheds, we operate the Watershed Policy Division at the Water Quality Management Bureau at MOE, as well as Watershed Management Bureau at regional environmental offices consisting of Watershed Planning Section, Water Source Management Section, and Local Cooperation Section. We also operate Total Water Pollution Quantity Section at the National Institute of Environmental Re-search to address technological matters such as water modeling.
Additionally, the River Environmental Research Laboratories have been established at each watershed to conduct basic environmental surveys, collect information, and conduct R&D.

② Total Pollution Load Management System
Regarding the total pollution load system, MOE allows local administrations to determine on their own whether they should implement the system in keeping with local environmental circum-stances, thus striking a balance between environmental conservation and development. Hence, local administrations including Gwang-ju City governing the Paldang Lake watershed plans to establish and implement a basic plan for the total pollution load system in collaboration with MOE.
Towards this end, in 2002, we formulated basic guidelines on total pollution load management including the documenting of key pollutants and target water quality. We are now preparing to establish the water quality target at down-stream points at watersheds by dividing the three river watersheds into unit watersheds for total pollution load management.

③ Water Use Charges & Watershed Management Funds
MOE introduced the water use charges system to make up for losses incurred by upstream residents due to land use regulations, to facilitate the construction of basic environmental facilities, and to ensure water saving. This system is based on the user-pays principle, and the aforementioned Watershed Management Commit-tees determine the water use charge per ton every two years.
The water use charge for 2007 is 140 won per ton for the Nak-dong River watershed, 150 won for the Han River, 160 won for Geum River, and Yongsan River watersheds. In 2007, Han River expects to collect 362.8 billion won, Nak-dong River 166.8 billion won, Geum River 76 billion won, and Yongsan River 57.5 billion won.
Using the collected water use charges, the Watershed Management Committees manage water-shed management funds, and provide support for local administrations in upstream areas to construct and operate basic environmental facilities to improve the quality of water and protect water sources, as well as assist residents and purchase land in riparian buffer zones.
MOE raised 3,487 billion won from 1999 to 2007 and invested 841 billion won in supporting residents, 670 billion in purchasing land, 930.7 billion won in constructing basic environmental facilities like sewage disposal and treatment plants, and 636.4 billion won in operating basic environ-mental facilities.

④ Designation of Riparian Buffer Zones
Pollutants created in areas near rivers flow directly into rivers without undergoing purification process, thus degrading the quality of the water. Hence, MOE set certain areas around the rivers as riparian buffer zones to restrict the construction of restaurants, lodging facilities, bathhouses, factories, and livestock sheds.
Aiming to recover the eco-system in riparian buffer zones and prevent water pollution by non-point sources, MOE plans to gradually purchase land in riparian buffer zones, and to create riparian buffer forests. For the Han River watershed, 191km² of land in the Namhan River, Buk-han River and Gyeongan River watersheds were designated as riparian buffer zones; for the Nakdong River watershed, 340km²; for the Geum River watershed, 373km²; and for the Yongsan River watershed, 296km² were designated.

⑤ Purchase of Land
Under the land purchase system, in case a person who owns land and buildings in water source protection areas, riparian buffer zones, or areas vulnerable to water quality deterioration, wishes to sell them, the buyer is required to consult in advance with the Water-shed Management Committee before buying them. This system helps to diffuse conflicts over infringement on private properties due to regulations, as well as the creation of rampant pollution sources.
In case the buyer wishes to re-sell the purchased land or change its use to other than a forest or a green belt, he is required to consult the Watershed Management Committees, thus strictly restricting pollution sources. MOE like-wise pushes to create habitats for creatures, wetlands, bio-embankments and forestry, and restore vibrant ecosystems.

3) Livestock Wastewater Management

In terms of volume, livestock wastewater accounts for about 0.6% of total sewage and wastewater generation in Korea, but in terms of pollution load it amounts to 26%, making livestock wastewater a major source of pollution.
Because livestock waste has the dual characteristic of being both a resource and a waste product, the government is focusing management activities on using livestock waste as a resource first, while also operating public treatment facilities to support small-scale livestock farms.
In accordance with the Act on the Disposal of Sewage, Excreta and Livestock Wastewater, livestock farms above a certain capacity are required to establish and operate proper facilities to dispose of and treat livestock waste.
There are currently 200,000 farms including 174,000 permitted/registered livestock farms. Most permitted/registered farms have established and operate facilities that convert livestock waste into a resource such as compost. Since 1991, the government has supported the establishment of public treatment facilities for livestock waste from small-scale farms: 60 are currently in operation and 26 are in construction.
For the appropriate disposal and treatment of livestock waste, standards for establishing and managing treatment facilities, as well as water quality standards for the treated effluent, have been prescribed. Also, efforts continue to raise treatment efficiency and to improve the facilities and the collection system.
In April 2004, the Ministry of Environment, in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (www.maf.go.kr), established the Task Force Team on Livestock Wastewater. It will issue their full report in late 2004, which is to include comprehensive management measures for the expanded use of livestock excreta as a resource.

4) Comprehensive Measures for Non-Point Source Pollution Management

Up until recently, water management measures have focused on controlling point source discharges such as industrial and municipal wastewater that can be collected through pipelines and easily treated. As evident in the table below, water quality levels in the four major rivers have largely improved since 1999. However, policies focused on point source pollution have shown its limitations in achieving water quality improvement, pointing out the need for an advanced management system for river basin water quality beyond the scope of existing policies.

Pollutants from non-point sources are estimated to account for 42~68% of the total pollutant load (BOD level) in the four major rivers. If taking Total Nitrogen (T-N) and Total Phosphorous (T-P) as the standard, both which are the main cause of eutrophication, the proportion of non-point source pollutants is expected to be much higher. With the expansion of wastewater treatment plants and strengthened discharge regulations, point source pollution continues to decrease. However, non-point source pollution continues to increase from cities, roads, and farmlands. For example, analysis shows that 44.5% of the pollutant load in the Paldang water supply resource is from non-point sources. Without proper measures, it is expected to rise to 54.3% by the year 2020.
The Ministry of Environment recognizes the fact that further significant improvements in water quality are difficult to achieve without concentrating efforts in the prevention of non-point source pollution. In other words, comprehensive measures are necessary to control major non-point sources such as runoff from roads, highways, and bridges, as well as livestock waste, agricultural fertilizers, and overflow from combined sewers.

① Current State of Non-Point Source Pollution
② Main Contents of the Comprehensive Measures

① Current State of Non-Point Source Pollution
Non-point source pollution not only occurs at a variety of development sites but also in everyday surroundings including urban and industrialized areas, agricultural regions, farmlands, forests, roads, rivers and streams. This type of pollution is especially severe during heavy rainfall when there is direct inflow into water bodies. The fact that non-point source pollution heavily fluctuates according to precipitation is a major cause of difficulty in setting up management measures.

1. (a) Urban Areas
   Cities are becoming the largest source of non-point source pollution as impermeable land surfaces continue to expand from various land development projects like redevelopment and reconstruction. During rainfall, effluents develop that carry dust, trash, and waste deposits accumulated on road surfaces and buildings, as well as in factories. The contaminated stormwater flows into water bodies through separate sewers or combined sewers.
2. (b) Agricultural Areas
   Pollutants that originate from farmlands involve chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, and livestock waste. Soil erosion is transferred through concrete drain pipes from steep areas of agricultural cultivation, high altitude (600m above sea level) fields, and cleared farmlands. This non-point source pollution measured in BOD level is estimated to be around 5,322 tons yearly for the Han River watershed alone.
3. (c) Forested Areas
   Major sources of non-point pollution from forested areas include roads designed and constructed to facilitate forest management, steep slopes (natural and man-made), debris and waste material from logging, and forest fire regions where extensive soil erosion occurred.
4. (d) Rivers and Streams
   The capacity of water systems to purify pollutants can deteriorate due to aggregate extraction, concrete embankments, the construction of parking lots along riversides, and the paving over of streams for urban development. Such changes lead to the direct inflow of non-point source pollutants from upstream land development and use into water bodies without filtration.
5. (e) Roads
   During rainfall, pollutants such as oils and grease on road surfaces, worn tire bits, and silt and gravel from road construction flows directly into water bodies. Roads, highways and bridges need particular management because the amount of non-point source discharges is much greater than in most urban regions, as shown in the graph below.
   
   

   Comparison of pollution generation during rainfall between roads and urban areas

   Type Pollution concentration (mg/L) Pollution load (kg/ha/day) Roads High-density Apts Roads Urban Areas BOD 12.1 6.1 1.7~5.5 0.8~1.1 COD 67.7 15.9 1.9~6.4 1.3~1.4 ss 126.6 59.6 11.0~28.4 1.7 Source: Korea Environment Institute (2002) "Management of Non-point Source Pollution by Reducing Storm Runoff"

   
   

② Main Contents of the Comprehensive Measures
In March 2004, the "Comprehensive Measures for Non-point Source Pollution Management in the Four Major Rivers" were established under the leadership of the Prime Minister's Office and through the cooperation of related ministries. The Comprehensive Measures contain three major policy fields: 1) policy system improvements, 2) pilot projects on the construction and management of non-point source pollution treatment facilities, and 3) research and PR. Such areas of concern will be addressed over three phases. The first phase (2004~2005) focuses on policy system improvement and pilot projects, the second phase (2006~2011) focuses on best-fit management projects for major river basins of the four major rivers, and the third phase (2012~2020) focuses on nationwide implementation of non-point source pollution management.

In the area of policy system improvements, through revisions on the Water Quality Conservation Act, the central government and local authorities will be charged with the responsibilities and duties of non-point source pollution management. Also, clauses on the management of non-point source pollution will be incorporated into various related legislations and guidelines such as the environmental impact assessment, city framework plans, and land use laws in order to strengthen environmentally sound land use practices that begin in the early planning stages of new urban development and land use.
With respect to related projects, MOE will conduct pilot projects on non-point source pollution abatement programs for each small drainage area of the four major rivers between 2004 and 2009. Such projects will meet drainage area characteristics and will consolidate important data and technology including treatment efficiency, and facility operation and maintenance in order to form the basis upon which standard guidelines on the construction, operation, and maintenance of non-point source pollution abatement facilities will be established.
The government, in recognition of the critical importance of efforts by citizens and local governments, will develop and distribute a citizen-wide education program, as well as host regular workshops and seminars in cooperation with related ministries for the reduction of non-point source pollution at source.
If the policy follows through as planned, it is expected that the amount of non-point pollutants will decrease 34.3% from 381 tons/day to 250 tons/day and that the water quality will rise in the 4 major watersheds to BOD levels of 0.20~0.65mg/L.

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