2.1.4.3. Case study on human factors threatening to the water environment

Many case studies have been done at different parts of the Mekong River system, which indicates that various human factors can cause degradation of the water environment, although they may have occurred intentionally and/or unintentionally. The following describes related human factors and degradation of the water environment.

2.1.4.3.1 Ratanakiri case study: forestry and water issues

- Forestry issue: The negative consequences of logging are manifold and the highland population suffers severe and direct consequences. The collection of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) is vital for food security because it provides both supplementary nutrition and products that can be sold. Where careless logging is practiced, discarded logs and litter are left behind which makes the lower levels of the forest too thick and clogs streams and rivers. Travelling through the area to collect products become difficult, aquatic resources are destroyed and fish migration is blocked. Biodiversity would ultimately be threatened if logging were to continue at the same pace. Logging increases erosion, sedimentation of streams and rivers, changes in ground-rivers, habitat loss, and has a possible impact on microclimates. The forestry sector appears to be the most difficult to regulate through decentralisation. It is also the natural resource over which the national government is least willing to hand over power.

- Water issue: Water resources are ample in Ratanakiri Province; annual rainfall is around 2,000-3,000 mm (as compared to 1,200-1,500 mm in lowland Cambodia). Groundwater is generally available at a reasonable depth; there are year-round streams, wells erupt into the surface and a number of major rivers flow through the province (Himel, J & Nhem, S., 1997).

The water issue could be viewed at two different levels. The first is the micro level where water resources are used for individual villages and minor communities, including local streams and ponds and the infrastructure around them. The second is the provincial level, concerning overall water supplies and the major tributary rivers to the Mekong River, such as the Se San River and the Sre Pok River, which, in a geographical sense define the living, agricultural and fishing conditions of the province (Öjendal J. et al, 2001).

The generally high availability of water resources in Ratanakiri Province constitutes one of its major advantages as an agricultural province. This feature has also prompted a number of actors to seek the possibility of increasing irrigated rice cultivation. The Khmer Rouge built a large number of irrigation schemes (approximately 60 to 70) in the province, as they did in the rest of Cambodia. The fairly balanced hydrological regime is under threat due to the exploitation of upland soils and forested areas, as Himel and Nhem already documented in 1996-97. Since then, large-scale logging and cash cropping as well as uncontrolled expansion of paddy cultivation, have continued with few environmental protection measures initiated. For example, coffee plantations are typically established on hillsides, depriving the area just below of a substantial part of the water supply (Ibid, 2001).

2.1.4.3.2. Water, and encroachment and speculation (Consequences on the environment and livelihood of indigenous highlanders)

A growing population, due among other reasons to improved health and security, is indeed one cause of increasing pressure on the land. But there are more important factors, such as the rapid and massive influx of lowlanders to Ratanakiri Province with highlanders being forced off their land or being taken advantaged. The history of violent conflict has also been a contributing factor. When people who had fled to Lao and Vietnam during the wars returned to Ratanakiri Province, they first lived in small camp-like areas before moving to their traditional and large areas of swidden land. Highlanders definitely perceive lowlanders as a threat to their access to land for traditional livelihoods.

Another aspect is that land is becoming such an issue in the country as a whole that people with money realise that they can make a large profit if they buy and resell it or use it for large-scale plantations. This problem is therefore connected to the forestry issue. People obtain land covered with forest, cut down the trees–without worrying about sustainability or long-term consequences–because they know that they will then be able to use the land for agriculture. In addition, small and large-scale plantations are being established in the province at a fairly high pace (Colm, 1997). In fact, looking at a map at the cadastral office, it becomes clear that virtually the entire province is claimed by various plantation and forest concessions/interests. These claims are often made where indigenous peoples are already using the land.

Another, perhaps even more difficult, land problem is posed by the overall governance situation in the country. It is fairly common to find informal leaders whose power is based on a reputation for being knowledgeable and willing to work in people's best interest, but it can also be based on force (Hasselskog, 2000).

The environmental and socio-economic consequences of land seizure are inevitable: because people are moving away from the low-intensity use of land, the soil is becoming less fertile, which means that yields will be lower, as will the level of food security. As a result, the weakening of the local culture may become a serious concern, despite the official discourse of the promotion of minorities' culture.

2.1.4.3.3. Intensification of population pressure through migration

Development of tourism, infrastructure improvement and increased foreign investment are major factors encouraging migration from poor provinces towards urban areas where employment opportunities and facilities are created.

Based on the Cambodia Census 1998, this map from the Social Atlas of the Lower Mekong Basin clearly indicates that within the Delta Sub-area, the area containing Phnom-Penh Municipality and the provinces of Koh Kong, Kampong Speu, Kandal and Kampong Chhnang is the most predominant area for migrant reception, with immigrant populations of ten percent, two to three percent, and three to five percent, respectively a as 5 years earlier. The provinces of Takeo, Kampot, Prey Veng and Kampong Cham こcountless immigrants with 1-2 % in average.No data is available for Svay Rieng Province.

Thus, migration is of concern in the Delta because it causes population pressure in areas where the population density is already high, and where resources are sometimes over-exploited for sustaining livelihoods and economic purposes. There is a strong correlation between migration and employment opportunities, particularly in the sector of services and industry which are the most developed in urban areas. This reality provokes an irresistible attraction to rural people whose livelihood is becoming more and more precarious under the pressure of poverty and natural calamities. Textile factories settled in the surroundings of the capital and other urban areas e.g. in Kampong Cham and Kampong Speu Provinces, constitute attractive poles for young populations from rural and remote areas. Young women with high labour productivity are predominantly drained from the countryside, sometimes for long periods and change employment numerous times. According to a recent study conducted by CRD (2004) with 1,500 respondents around Phnom-Penh Municipality, 67 percent of garment factory employees are aged between 18- and 24-years-old. Seventy-two percent of these employees are single or have never married and 22 percent are married. Of those, 78.5 percent have no children and only 12 percent have one child. Regarding the primary household size, 78 percent come from households composed of four to nine people. Ninety-four percent are permanent employees. Around 40 percent of these employees were hired in each of these two year periods, thus not so recently, meaning that they started to leave the home-village quite a long time ago.

The length of time at their previous jobs suggests that they have been absent from their home-village for quite a long period: 40 percent were at their previous job less than one year and another 40 percent for two years or less.

Among the top 12 provinces of origin are Prey Veng (18 percent), Kampong Cham (18 percent), Kandal (16 percent), Takeo (10 percent ), Svay Rieng (10 percent ) and Phnom-Penh (7 percent ).

But urbanisation is not really the problem here. It is more outsiders seizing land for concessions, gaining good land along the roads, as well as non-recognition of indigenous land rights and indigenous people’s lack of understanding of the laws.

2.1.4.3.4. Aggravation of vulnerability of the poor

In Cambodia, half of the villages have between 40 to 60 percent of households below the poverty line, with some villages peaking at 80 percent (Mekong River Commission, 2003c). Many households have no land holdings and are entirely dependant on fishing and foraging, with access to fishing areas often under dispute. If conflict and instability are major causes of poverty, impoverishment originates from poor access to health and education services, lack of land ownership, women’s social deprivation and increasing vulnerability to natural calamities. Demographic pressure on the environment resulting in degradation is also a mechanism of impoverishment of the vulnerable in terms of limited access to resources. This trend is aggravated by the inadequacies of the governance system (Source: Population Census 1998).

Vulnerability of the deprived population can be seen through many socio-economic disparities, e.g. infant mortality. The 7C Sub-area, especially the provinces of Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri, has one of the highest rates of infant mortality with 100 to 170 deaths in one year per 1,000 live births. The factors influencing these rates include low birth weights, diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and malaria, and poor access to adequate health services.

2.1.4.3.5. Intensification of fisheries and aquaculture production

Fisheries play an important role in Cambodian society for daily diets and economic growth. Surveys on the benefits of fish revealed that an average of about 75 percent of animal protein is taken from fish (ref. Ministry of Environment 1994; FAO 1992; Ahmed et al. 1996; Ahmed et al. 1998; Van Zalinge and Nao 1999). The Cambodian people eat fish year round and at almost every meal in some form: fresh, dry-salted or smoked. Fish paste and fish sauces are the main ingredients in traditional delicious Khmer dishes. In Cambodia, fisheries are divided into three categories.

• Inland fisheries are based on the Mekong River, Tonle Sap River, Tonle Sap Great Lake and Bassac River, other tributaries, and the flood rice fields. These areas are a very important source of inland fish catch of 300,000 to 400,000 tons annually which ranks fourth amongst the world's top freshwater fish producer countries (Diep et la. 1998; Van Zalinge et la. 1998; Van Zalinge and Nau 1999).
• Marine fisheries cover the inshore areas close to the coast and offshore areas in the deep waters along Cambodian coastal territory. The marine capture fisheries contribute a substantial amount for utilising and exporting between 35,000 to 40,000 tons annually.
• Aquaculture takes place in inland areas and Koh Kong Province, based on introduced and indigenous species. Aquaculture is still in its infancy stage and is not yet developed. This component has produced a steady increasing amount of cultured fish, with 1,610 tons produced in 1999.

In earlier years, due to low populations and non-existent intensive commercial fishing, the supply of fish in Cambodia seemed to be inexhaustible (JICA, 1997). In the old days, the Cambodian people enjoyed fishing everywhere with the old saying, "Where there is water, there is fish." This saying is still true today even though there has been a decline in the production as well quality of fish reported in the last two decades. Fish production reportedly has potential of 65 kg/ha/year (based on the dry season). This figure exceeds more than five times most tropical freshwater bodies, which average 12 kg/ha/year.

Fish yields from year to year seem to be insufficient for consumption, including international market demands. Therefore, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries have issued a policy to increase aquaculture practices since the 1990s.

There are two kinds of fish cultures in Cambodia including (i) exotic species; and (ii) indigenous species that are indicated in the table below. Exotic species have been cultured in ponds and rice fields, and most of the indigenous species have been cultured in cages and/or ponds.

Table 7: Fish culture practice in Cambodia

Although the aquaculture practice is widespread throughout the country, fish ponds and cage nets are rarely developed in the Mekong River itself; however, they can be found in the tributaries of the Mekong basin. It is estimated that 58,123 tons originate from catches in natural water-bodies and basins, while around 4,758 tons are produced from aquaculture every year in the Delta Sub-area. The total value of the catches is estimated at approximately USD 45 million.

Table 8: Freshwater and aquaculture fish products

It is estimated that the value of river fish captures is about USD 0.68 per kilogram, while the value of aquaculture is approximately USD 1.05 per kilogram (Mekong River Commission─State of Basin Report, 2003).

The above table suggests that aquaculture fish products remain weak (7.3 percent of the total catch). However, there is a huge potential for its development in the Delta, given the needs to be met.

Pond culture and farming fish in rice fields have been introduced by the Department of Fisheries for a few years. The idea is aimed at providing an important opportunity for poor farmers or households to improve nutrition and increase their cash income generation. An estimated 124,880 families in the Delta have their own fish ponds. The table below presents communities and private companies engaged in fishery.

Table 9: Number of families, communities and
companies involved in fishery activitiesy

Trends and future development of fisheries and aquaculture:

• Establishment of protected flooded forest areas is the traditional approach to preserving fish and biodiversity. As reported, the total land area covered by flooded forest is approximately 4.71 percent of the total land area within the Delta. There is therefore a scope for protecting the flooded forest area in order to increase natural fish biodiversity. Destruction of flooded forest for fuel and conversion to rice fields or other purposes within the Delta Sub-area rarely takes place. In the context of recent governmental policy aiming at stopping deforestation, there is hope for efficient protection of flooded forests against its conversion into agricultural areas.
• Most people living in rural areas within the Delta rely upon fish and other aquatic animals for their food. Yet, the annual fish production does not meet the requirements of those who live in the Delta. It is estimated that approximately 12 kg of fish is consumed annually by people within the Delta. The consumption within the Delta is much less than that within the Lower Mekong Basin, which is about 36 kg/person/year. As a result, the aquaculture will increase in order to meet the need of the people as a whole and to reduce poverty that seriously affects rural areas.
• Increases in harvesting capacity, advances in fishing technology, and other illegal activities of fish catch have contributed to the decline of fish stocks in the Delta. As reported, a number of fishing gear types and illegal fishing activities have been found in the tributaries of the Mekong River. This would lead to the decline of rare fish types which are species of global significance.
• The introduction of exotics from neighbouring countries for aquaculture purposes tends to develop, and within the context of weak enforcement of existing laws, can be a serious threat for the indigenous biodiversity. In other words, risks from the uncontrolled introduction of exotic fish species include competition and displacement of indigenous fish species, reduced biodiversity, hybridisation, loss of genetic diversity and the possible introduction of disease pathogens and parasites.

2.1.4.3.6. Increased use of pesticides and fertilisers in the Delta of Cambodia

The agriculture sector is a primary direct source of income in the rural economy and contributes about 40 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Therefore, the Government intends to promote a supporting environment for agriculture, including provisions of core economic and social infrastructure and services that allow farmers to make their own investment and production decisions. The agriculture sector provokes labour-intensive growth and generates higher incomes for the poor living in rural areas as a whole and for those living in rural areas within the Delta in particular (Royal Government of Cambodia, 2001).

According to FAO (2001), the quantity of mineral fertiliser used in Cambodia increased from 300 metric tons in 1989 to 7,900 metric tons in 1999. Furthermore, the weight of mineral fertiliser used per ha of agricultural land increased 21 times within the same period (Ibid). There is no accurate data available on the uses of various kinds of pesticides in Cambodia.

However, survey data from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) suggest that in lowland Cambodia, the percentage of wet season farmers using pesticides ranges from 8 to 50 percent depending upon the province, with a range of 40 to 100 percent for dry season farmers (IRRI-1997). The same study found that the most commonly-used pesticides in the country fall under the World Health Organization's "most hazardous" classification.

Generally, pesticide consumption in Cambodia has grown faster over the last few decades to control various types of harmful pests. In technical terms, many inquiries show that an increased consumption of pesticides does not mean an increase the availability of basic food plants for poor people, but higher technologies are suitable. Otherwise, pesticides do not merely destroy harmful pests, but also destroy other beneficial insects/animals that live in and around the pesticide sprayed areas. As well, pesticides may indirectly affect to human health due to toxic food and water, as well as pollute water quality, which can have a harmful impact on aquaculture.

In 1994, about 30 different types of chemicals were used. This number increased to 63 in 1998, and remarkably, the number of pesticides used rose to 241 in 2001 (Appendix 3) and 423 types in 2003 (Cambodian Center for Study and Development in Agriculture ─ CEDAC, March 2004). The 110 pesticides were identified by common names (pesticide active ingredients) and found to be available in markets in the country under 423 trade names. By far the most widely-used pesticide on the market was insecticide. Of these pesticides, according to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Circular 598 released in December 2003, 101 trade names (14 common names) are banned and 46 trade names (eight common names) are restricted. Furthermore, 28 trade names (of which 21 common names) were not listed in the circular. Noticeable, 41.4 percent of pesticides available on the Cambodian market are currently illegal.

Persistent pesticides are banned in riparian countries, but it is clear that residual and illegally imported stocks continue to be used because residues of DTT, Dieldrin and similar chemicals have been found in fish across the basin (Monirith et al, 1999). However, investigations into a build-up of pesticide residues in the bodies of such fish has revealed that contaminant levels are well below the maximum safety levels specified by the World Heath Organization (Ibid).

Pesticides can also cause environmental problems through build-up in the soil, toxicity to humans and the development of resistance on the part of pests. Water pollution from pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers is becoming a major concern for Mekong because it forms a biological barrier to the dispersion of eggs or the migration of fish larvae and adults. Fertiliser run-off into water bodies often results in eutrophication as the water becomes overly nutrient rich. If eutrophication increases the yield of certain fish species, it is generally accompanied by a decline in the number of fish species and biodiversity. DDT levels are higher in freshwater fish than marine, suggesting that the DDT originated from inland river catchments. DDT is used extensively during the early rainy season to control insects, and mosquitoes in particular (T.S. Touch, 1996).

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Table of contents > 2. River Basins > 2.1. The Mekong River System (Basin)

2.1.1. Introduction

2.1.2. Mekong River tributaries and Rainfall

2.1.3. Detailed survey of rainfall and surface water in the Mekong catchment

2.1.4. Water environment in the Mekong River systems

2.1.4.1. Human activities threatening to water quantity

2.1.4.2. Human activities threatening to water quality

2.1.4.3. Case study on human factors threatening to the water environment

2.1.4.4. Transboundary issues