Nepal
Last Updated : 22 April 2025.
Nepal has abundant water resources. Average annual precipitation is around 1,500 mm, ranging from over 6,000 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna Range in central Nepal to less than 250 mm in the northcentral portion near the Tibetan plateau.
State of water environment
Nepal has abundant water resources. Average annual precipitation is around 1,500 mm, ranging from over 6,000 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna Range in central Nepal to less than 250 mm in the northcentral portion near the Tibetan plateau. About 10% of total precipitation in Nepal falls as snow, mostly in the 23% of Nepal’s total area that lies above the permanent snowline of 5,000 m. There are 3,252 glaciers, covering an area of 5,323 km2 (or 3.6% of Nepal’s total area), with an estimated ice reserve of 481 km3, and 2,323 glacial lakes, covering an area of 75 km2 (WECS 2011). The snow-capped Himalayas is the main source of rivers in the country, especially during the dry season.
There are about 6,000 rivers in Nepal, with a total drainage area of 194,471 km2, 76% of which lies in Nepal. Three categories of river systems predominate, based on their origin. The first comprises four main river systems from east to west, respectively: Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali, and Mahakali river systems, all of which originate from glaciers or snow-fed lakes in the Himalayas. River systems in the second category originate in the Mahabharat range in the mid-hills, and include Babai, West Rapti, Bagmati, Kamala, Kankai and Mechi river systems. River systems in the third category include streams or rivulets from the Chure hills bordering the Terai plain region in south Nepal, the streams and rivulets of which generally cause flash floods during monsoon rains and remain dry or with very low flow during the dry season.
An assessment has identified 5,358 wetlands in Nepal, including high altitude glacier lakes in the Himalayas, natural lakes as well as ponds, dams and other small wetlands (NLCDC 2009). Of these, 616 lakes (including ponds, small wetlands) up to 3,000 m elevation are roughly evenly distributed across seven provinces (NLCDC 2021).
Please read: Outlook 2024 Nepal
Legal framework
- Key provisions related to water environment in the new constitution and recent acts and policy documents
Name Category Year Purpose/ arrangements Constitution of Nepal Constitution 2015 Every citizen shall have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment; victim of environmental pollution shall be entitled the right to compensation from the polluter; the right to access to basic clean drinking water and sanitation services; conservation and multiple uses of water resources; Use of forests and waters and management of environment; Environment Protection Act Act 2019 The umbrella Act governing over all environmental protection of the country. Forest Act Act 2019 This Act governs all forest and related resources focusing on forest management, while contributing to the conservation of wildlife, environment, and water resources. National Climate Change Policy, 2019 Policy 2019 Utilize the opportunities of financial, technical and other forms of assistance through the framework of conventions for the purpose of climate change management in line with the national priority and local needs while complying with international obligations. National Environment Policy 2019 Policy 2019 Guide the implementation of environment related laws and other thematic laws, realize international commitment and enable collaboration between all concerned government agencies and non-government organizations on environmental management actions. National Water Resources Policy Policy 2020 The policy is aimed to cover all aspects of water resources development and management based on the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principle and newly restructured three tires of government. Environment Protection Rules Rule 2020 This Rule is based on the new Environment Protection Act 2019. Water Supply and Sanitation Act Act 2022 This Act governs all water supply and sanitation protection of the country. Water Resources Act (Draft) Act Under drafting The draft Act will be the new water resources act for the execution of new policy which covers all aspects of water resources development and management National Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Policy Policy 2023 The policy aims to ensure all the issues of safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene and control the water pollution and environmental sanitation.
Institutional Arrangement
Key institutions and mandated areas related to the water environment
| Name of the Institution | Level | Mandated Working Area |
| Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MOEWRI) | Central | Over all Energy, Hydropower, Irrigation and Water Resources development of the country. |
| Department of Water Resources and Irrigation | Central | Department of Water Resources and Irrigation is responsible for planning, developing, implementing and monitoring of all sorts of central level surface and groundwater irrigation systems by utilizing the available surface and ground water resources. |
| Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) | Central | DHM is responsible to collect , process , publish and disseminate hydrological and meteorological data and monitors river hydrology, water quality, sediment, limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, weather, climate, agro-meteorology, air quality and solar energy in the country. |
| Water and Energy Commission Secretariat | Central | Policy and planning regarding energy and water resources development and management covering all sectors. Advisory role on critical issues related to large water resources projects. |
| Ministry of Water Supply (MWS) | Central | Water supply, sanitation and hygeine development and management of the country. |
| Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management (DWSSM) | Central | The Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management (DWSSM) is responsible for planning, implementing, operating and their maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems throughout the country. |
| Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) | National Corporation | NWSC is a public utility organization; an autonomous government body and provides drinking water supply services to the 20 cities within the country. |
| Ministry of Forest and Environment (MOFE) | Central | Forest resources and environmental development; management and enforcement environmental mandates. |
| Department of Environment | Central | Responsible for the implementation and the compliance of Environmental Protection Act , and Rule (EPR), and pollution control standard as promulgated by the Government of Nepal. |
| Ministry of Urban Development | Central | Over all urban planning, development and Management for the development of municipalities in the country. |
| Ministry of Physical Infrastructure Development | Provincial | Provincial level policy planning formulation and development of all sorts of physical infrastructures and their environmental management. |
| Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment | Provincial | Provincial level policy planning formulation and development of all sorts of forest, environment, conservation of biodiversity, adaptation to climate change and science and technology related. |
| Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) | Kathmandu Valley | KUKL is responsible for the operation and management of water and wastewater services in the Valley. The company will also take over the responsibility for infrastructure built by the Melamchi Water Supply Project. |
| Local Units | Local | Local level planning and development in close coordination with province. |
Water quality standards
Environmental Standards in Nepal (In Nepali; please see pp.46-56 for the industrial effluent standards)